DEAR READERS: I consult the scientific literature indexed at the National Institutes of Health (tinyurl.com/472npj) when seeking information. In this week’s column, I’d like to explain the process -- involving years of planning, research and analysis -- by which information like this is prepared for public consumption.

A study’s principal investigator is like the executive chef. Funding for studies is pivotal; it governs what gets done, who will be available to do the work and, in the end, how this particular “serving” of science will progress. Researchers at colleges and universities depend on grants from federal and private sources to keep their laboratories in operation. Grants will cover equipment and material costs, along with all staff salaries connected with the research, and often include a hefty portion for the research institution.

Competition for limited research funds continues to increase, and the situation shows no sign of improving. Applications get reviewed by selected scientists, and the agencies distribute their funds according to priority scores assigned during evaluation. If an application is assigned a low priority, the scientists will have to look elsewhere for research dollars -- if “elsewhere” even exists. Many turn to industry or grant-giving foundations.

Grant-writing takes up a big chunk of scientists’ time throughout a given year. Some take courses on how to write better grants. Others form collaborations with scientists who have a good track record on securing funds. Working in a “hot” topic area can improve the odds of funding; many scientists shift their research to go where the money is.

Often looming in the wings is academic tenure: the coveted achievement of secure employment at an academic institution. The progress of each new “tenure-track” faculty member gets reviewed annually, but the formal review takes place sometime between the fourth and seventh year after joining the institution. Teaching skills and the ability to train graduate students are important, but the ability to attract funding and publish results tend to be critical elements in tenure decisions.

If tenure is not granted, a faculty member usually has to leave; even the best instructors are often shown the door if their research programs are not productive. Finding a new job may be a problem, as the openings usually go to those showing promise of attracting funds.

This reality of research is rarely appreciated, and it helps explain the conservative nature of mainstream science. How can one justify pursuing ideas on the fringes of science when such pursuits have a lower likelihood of funding? Consider, also, that challenges to mainstream thinking may place an individual researcher at odds with senior faculty members, who will be presiding over their tenure decision.

Even if initial research dollars are received, tackling new concepts can yield unclear results in the opening experiments. “No significant findings” translates to “no publication,” which lessens the chance for grant renewals. Scientists might design their experiments to bring forth quick results, in the interest of increasing their odds for funding. Then there are those who are forced to call it quits and shift from academia to industry, where applying for grants is no longer an issue.

If you sense that the whole system can be oppressive, you are getting the right idea. It tends to be conservative and slow-moving.

But it is not all doom and gloom. Many research programs pick up steam, flourish and take on lives of their own. As with any career, the availability of experienced mentors plays a vital role. Using graduate students and recent Ph.Ds on postdoctoral fellowships, a faculty member can increase the output of their lab while helping to train the next generation of university scientists. Every week, there are new findings in the journals; some reinforce our concept of the world, while others open the door to change.

Send questions to: “On Nutrition,” Ed Blonz, c/o Andrews McMeel Syndication, 1130 Walnut St., Kansas City, MO, 64106. Send email inquiries to questions@blonz.com. Due to the volume of mail, personal replies cannot be provided.

DEAR DR. BLONZ: I am lactose-intolerant, so I have become a careful label-reader. I remain curious and cautious about some ingredients in bread and lunchmeat products that sound as if they might contain lactose. Two that I often see are “potassium lactate” and “sodium lactate.” Are these sources of lactose, and if so, how much (in relation to milk)? Also, seeing as it is a dairy product, is there lactose in butter? -- K.D.B., via email

DEAR K.D.B.: Lactose is the main carbohydrate (sugar) in milk and milk products; it is a double sugar made up of glucose attached to galactose.

Lactose intolerance reflects an inability to effectively separate the lactose into its constituent parts, which prevents it from being absorbed. The undigested lactose travels the length of the digestive tract, enters the large intestine and, depending on how much arrives, can cause various degrees of bloating, gas, diarrhea and nausea.

An 8-ounce glass of milk contains about 12 grams of lactose. As you have observed, there are food additives where lactose is a part of a compound. Potassium lactate and sodium lactate are just such substances; another is calcium lactate. These compounds can act as a buffer and help protect against product breakdown. Such “lactate” compounds tend to be used at milligram levels, so they should not represent a concern for any typical lactose-intolerant individual. The same can be said for butter, which is very low in lactose, containing about half a gram per serving.

If you are extremely sensitive to lactose, you will have to experiment to see how your body reacts. The University of Virginia sheet on the lactose content of various dairy foods can be found at tinyurl.com/yc7a2ywn.

DEAR DR. BLONZ: My grandson is now into bodybuilding. His high school trainer says he needs 200 grams a day of quality protein, plus a gallon of water. This seems excessive and I don’t want him to damage his kidneys. What are your thoughts? -- I.K., San Jose, California

DEAR I.K.: You did not indicate what your grandson weighs, and protein intake in athletes tends to correlate with their body weight. An average individual needs about 0.8 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight. For a 176-pound (80 kg) individual, this equates to 64 grams of protein a day. A generous intake for a strength-training athlete is between 1.2 grams and 2 grams per kilogram,

which translates to 96 to 160 grams of protein per day.

There is little evidence that higher protein intakes provide any additional benefit. The flip side is whether having excess protein might cause problems. As with any caloric food, excess protein gets disassembled, the kidneys having the task of removing the amino-group nitrogen from the body. Some of protein’s amino acids can be turned into glucose if that is needed at the moment, but most gets turned into fat and packaged for storage. We know what that means.

Assuming your grandson remains well-hydrated (the gallon a day speaks well to this aspect), and the rest of his diet contains greens, grains, fruits and vegetables, there are only minimal risks from this level of protein. There is a good discussion of protein requirements for athletes at tinyurl.com/zoq668l.

Send questions to: “On Nutrition,” Ed Blonz, c/o Andrews McMeel Syndication, 1130 Walnut St., Kansas City, MO, 64106. Send email inquiries to questions@blonz.com. Due to the volume of mail, personal replies cannot be provided.

DEAR DR. BLONZ: Is there salicylic acid in raspberries? And if so, isn’t that the active ingredient in aspirin? An article I read said that having raspberries could be as effective as drugs for pain from conditions such as arthritis or gout. If true, is there any concern for those of us who are told to avoid aspirin because of its effect on blood-clotting? -- D.F., Hayward, California

DEAR D.F.: Salicylic acid (salicylate) is indeed present in raspberries, along with a variety of other plant foods including fruits, vegetables and spices. Naturally occurring salicylates serve a variety of functions in the plant world, including acting as a type of plant hormone. (Now you know why some florists advise customers to put an aspirin in a vase of cut flowers to help them last longer.)

The active ingredient in aspirin is a type of salicylate -- in that case, acetyl salicylic acid. So, if the compounds are similar, can the salicylic acid in raspberries (or other foods) provide pain relief “as effective as drugs,” and do those on anticoagulants need to be concerned? The answer to both issues is “doubtful,” because of the relatively small amount of the substance present in food.

Studies rank the salicylate content of foods from “negligible” to “very high.” The “very high” ranking applies to foods containing more than 1 milligram per 100-gram (3.5-ounce) serving. A 100-gram serving of raspberries, which would be approximately 50 berries, is estimated to have about 5 milligrams of salicylate. Compare this with a single adult aspirin tablet, which contains 325 milligrams of acetyl salicylic acid.

Curious thing about advertising: They may tout the presence of a compound and all that it can do, but there is often this disconnect when it comes to the amount of the compound per serving. Often, that amount isn’t up to the task.

I don’t want to knock berries; they are great foods. Red raspberries, like other berries, have a host of healthful phytochemicals. Consider that pain can have an oxidative component in addition to its inflammatory component. Berries provide antioxidants along with their (admittedly low) dose of salicylate. Bottom line: It’s fair to say that eating raspberries can help the cause of some types of pain, but over the line to claim that they can be as effective at pain relief as a pharmaceutical agent designed, dosed and chosen for the job.

As for the coagulation (blood thinner) issue, a small amount of salicylate is not much to be concerned about. It would depend, of course, on how much you eat, what other food sources of salicylate might be in your diet, and how tightly your blood coagulation needs to be monitored. An appropriate dose of an anticoagulant is usually determined through a series of blood-clotting tests, and from that point on, it is important not to make changes in diet or medication that would affect clotting. There are often periodic tests done to be sure that coagulation remains within specific limits. The person to consult is the physician who handles this aspect of your health.

Finally, certain forms of salicylate are used in processed foods and drinks as preservatives and flavoring additives. There are non-food uses as well, with salicylates being found in many personal care products. As a final note, some individuals are sensitive to salicylates and need to limit their intake. More info on salicylate intolerance, and a list of food sources, can be found at tinyurl.com/yagos9kc.

Send questions to: “On Nutrition,” Ed Blonz, c/o Andrews McMeel Syndication, 1130 Walnut St., Kansas City, MO, 64106. Send email inquiries to questions@blonz.com. Due to the volume of mail, personal replies cannot be provided.